The Catiline Orations or Catilinarian Orations were speeches given in 63 BC by Marcus Tullius Cicero, the consul of Rome, exposing to the Roman Senate the plot of Lucius Sergius Catilina and his friends to overthrow the Roman government.
The Catiline plot and the orations of Cicero
Catiline, who was running for the consulship a second time after having lost the first time around, tried to ensure his victory by resorting to outlandish, blatant bribery. Cicero, in indignation, issued a law prohibiting machinations of this kind.[1] It was obvious to all that the law was directed specifically at Catiline. Catiline, in turn, conspired with some of his cronies to murder Cicero and the key men of the Senate on the day of the election. Cicero discovered the plan and postponed the election to give the Senate time to discuss the attempted coup d'état.
The day after the election was supposed to be held, Cicero addressed the Senate on the matter and Catiline's reaction was immediate and violent. In response to Catiline's behavior, the Senate issued a senatus consultum ultimum, a kind of declaration of martial law invoked whenever the Senate and the Roman Republic were in imminent danger from treason or sedition. Ordinary law was suspended and Cicero, as consul, was invested with absolute power.
When the election was finally held, Catiline lost again. Anticipating the bad news, the conspirators had already begun to assemble an army, made up mostly of Sulla's veteran soldiers. The nucleus of conspirators was also joined by senators whose profligate tastes left them perennially without funds. The plan was to initiate an insurrection in all of Italy, put Rome to the torch and to kill as many senators as they could.
Through some crafty moves of his own, Cicero knew exactly what was being planned. On November 8, Cicero called for a meeting of the Senate in the Temple of Jupiter in the Capitol, which was used for this purpose only when great danger was imminent. Catiline had the temerity to attend as well. It was in this context that Cicero delivered one of his most famous orations.
Oratio in Catilinam Prima in Senatu Habita
As political orations go, this was relatively short—roughly 317 lines of Latin—and to the point. The opening remarks are still widely remembered and used after 2,000 years:
Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiam furor iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit audacia?
How long, O Catiline, are you to abuse our patience? And for what long duration will that madness of yours mock us? To what end will you throw your unbridled audacity around you?
Also remembered is the famous exasperated exclamation, O tempora, O mores! (Oh the times! Oh the customs!)
Catiline was present when this speech was delivered. When he arrived at the Temple of Jupiter Stator and took his seat, however, the other senators moved away from him leaving him alone in his bench. Catiline tried to reply after the speech, but senators repeatedly interrupted him, calling him a traitor. He ran from the temple, hurling threats at the Senate. Later he left the city and went to the camp of Manlius, who was in charge of the army of rebels. The next morning Cicero assembled the people, and gave a further oration.
Oratio in Catilinam Secunda Habita ad Populum
In this speech, Cicero informed the citizens of Rome that Catiline had left the city, not in exile (as it was rumored), but to join with his illegal army. He described the conspirators as rich men who were in debt, men eager for power and wealth, Sulla's veterans, ruined men who hoped for any change, criminals, profligates, and other men of Catiline's ilk. He assured the people of Rome that they had nothing to fear because he, the consul, and the gods would protect the state.
Meanwhile, Catiline joined up with Gaius Manlius, commander of the rebel force. When the Senate was informed of these developments, they declared the two of them public enemies. Antonius, with troops loyal to Rome, followed Catiline while Cicero remained at home to guard the city. During the battle that took place between the 2nd and 3rd orations, Catiline saw that he would lose and in consequence threw himself into middle of the Roman troops, who promptly killed him. The year was 62 BC. Cicero subsequently obtained documents and confessions of many of the conspirators, which he presented to the people.
Oratio in Catilinam Tertia ad Populum
In this speech, Cicero claims that the city should rejoice because it has been saved from a bloody rebellion. He presents evidence that all of Catiline's accomplices confessed to their crimes. He asked for nothing for himself but grateful remembrance of the city, and acknowledged that this victory was more difficult than one in foreign lands because the enemies were citizens of Rome.
Oratio in Catilinam Quarta in Senatu Habita
In his fourth and final argument, Cicero establishes a basis for other orators (primarily Cato) to argue for the execution of the conspirators. As consul, Cicero was formally not allowed to voice any opinion in the matter, but he circumvented the rule with subtle oratory. Although very little is known about the actual debate (except for Cicero's argument, which has probably been altered from its original), the Senate majority probably opposed the death sentence for various reasons, one of which was the nobility of the accused. For example, Gaius Julius Caesar argued that exile and disenfranchisement would be sufficient punishment for the conspirators. However, after the combined efforts of Cicero and Cato, the vote shifted in favor of execution.
While most historians agree that Cicero's actions, and in particular the final speeches before the Senate, saved the republic, they also reflect his self-aggrandisement – and to a certain extent envy – probably born out of the fact that he was considered a novus homo, a Roman citizen without noble or ancient lineage.[2]
